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The Plan for the Response to Water Challenges
1.0 Executive Summary The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan has and will be facing challenges in its water sector due not only to the scarce water resources, but also due to the abnormally high population growth rates and the problems associated with such growth shocks. The water sector is of the highest priority and receives special attention from the Government and the donors as it represents the backbone for integrated social and economic development of the kingdom.
Water scarcity is the single most important natural constraint to Jordan’s economic growth and development. Rapid increases in population and industrial development have placed unprecedented demands on water resources. Total demand is approaching one billion cubic meters per year, which approximates the limit of Jordan’s renewable and economically developable water resources. Jordan’s water resources consist primarily of surface and ground water and for several years now, renewable ground water resources have been withdrawn at an unsustainable rate in order to meet the increasing demand. In addition, surface and ground water quality in some areas is deteriorating. Current water demands are not being met satisfactorily throughout the country and the costs of developing new water resources are rising rapidly.
Jordan has hosted several waves of refugees, displaced persons and returnees as a result of the prolonged conflict in the Middle East that have significantly contributed to the abnormal population increases. Population centers sprang at locations distant from both the conflict and water resources. The result has been a high cost of projects for municipal water supply and wastewater collection and disposal, as well as the associated high annual cost for their operation and maintenance. As standards of living increased, greater pressure was placed on the already stretched resources further driving the per capita water availability down and placing Jordan well within the ten poorest water nations on earth. Jordan’s water problems has been further compounded by the fact that most of Jordan’s surface water resources are shared with neighboring countries, whose control has partially deprived Jordan of its fair share of water; by the low reliability of water supply due in large part to extremely erratic and internal variations of rainfall - the main source of water used for irrigation; and by the resultant increase in pollution.
Jordan’s population of 5 million is growing and will double within a generation. The water supply, however, is the same as it was throughout history. Compounding those grim realities is the fact that per capita water consumption is rising twice as fast as the population. To put it in context, a child born in 1960 in the Jordan entered a country where fresh water available annually was around 530 cubic meters per capita. By the time that person reaches the age of 65, in the year 2025, it will have diminished to 91 cubic meters a year per capita, a drop of over 80%!
The practical implications of this permanent water deficit, the only future reality facing Jordan, if no immediate measures are taken, are two-fold. On one hand, present behavior patterns in most water dependent sectors must be adjusted toward water conservation and more efficient water use. On the other hand, Jordan will have to buy more food abroad. As we begin the 21st Century, a Jordanian’s share of domestic water services does not exceed 53 cubic meters per year, while his share in the foreign trade deficit in food commodities averages the equivalent of $130 per year, or about 8 per cent of his share of the GDP.
In the mid-long term, with a growing population and an increasing water demand, Jordan will not be able to satisfy its increasing water demands from renewable water resources without the assistance of the donors. Therefore, it is imperative that optimal and sustainable patterns of water use be established to meet the requirements of a growing population as well as Jordan’s economic development objectives and basic agricultural foodstuffs. No single action can remedy the country's water shortages; rather many actions are necessary to increase overall water availability.
Our strategy stresses the need for improved resource management with particular emphasis being placed on the sustainability of present and future uses. Special care is advocated for protection against pollution, quality degradation, and depletion of water resources. Furthermore, it is the Ministry’s aim to continually achieve the highest practical efficiency in the conveyance, distribution, application and use of our water resources with the goal of adopting a dual approach of demand and supply management. We aim to promote the integrated use of multiple resources in order to maximize usable flows and to maximize the net benefit from the use of a unit flow of water. The strategy also ensures that the rightful shares of the Kingdom’s shared water resources will be defended and protected through bilateral and multilateral understandings, negotiations, and agreements. Water and wastewater projects associated with regional peace processes are accorded special attention for construction, operation, and maintenance. Due respect is also given to the provisions of international law as applicable to water sharing, protection and conservation, as well as those applicable to territorial waters. As always, Jordan will continue in its endeavor to pursue both bilateral and multi-lateral co-operation with all our neighboring states.
On the home front, Jordan is striving to balance the water deficit by utilizing new sources as well as by decreasing consumption and has invested heavily in the development of water management infrastructure to increase the production of fresh water supply with donors assistance namely, USA, Japan, Germany, European Union (EU), European Investment Bank (EIB), The world Bank, United Nations (UN), Italy, France, Norway, South Korea, Holland, Canada, Spain, Sweden, China, Libya, Islamic Development Bank, Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, The Saudi Fund for Development, Abu Dhabi Fund and Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development. While progress is expanding access to safe drinking water supplies has been impressive, reaching over 98% of the population, important challenges remain. The reliability and adequacy of water supply is often low because of water shortage and under funded operation and maintenance programs. Expansion of modern sanitation systems to protect public health, and investment in wastewater collection and treatment systems to reduce pollution and increase the reuse of valuable water has lagged significantly behind the expansion of water supplies in large part because of very high investment and operating costs. Progress is increasing access to safe water and sanitation in water areas where the poor are concentrated, and in many rural areas, trails ever further behind. The solution of these supplies and capacity problems will be daunting without sustained assistance from the donor community and higher rates of economic growth and house hold incomes.
On the regional level, cooperation is required to alleviate part of the water shortage problem. Regional cooperation is advantageous because substantial amounts of money could be saved through a cooperative and integrated approach to water resources management. The Peace Treaty signed in 1994 guarantees Jordan its right to an additional 215 million cubic meters of water annually through new dams, diversion structures, pipelines and a desalination/ purification plant. Of this, Jordan is already receiving between 55 and 60 million cubic meters of water annually. While significant, the kingdom’s water grains from the peace treaty are barely enough to maintain the status quo. Likewise, Jordan is currently involved in discussions with Syria pertaining to issues on the upper catchments of the Yarmouk River in an attempt to reach an understanding over water sharing and flood storage between the two countries. Jordan has long been a strong advocate of transforming the zero-sum game in water sharing, where there are winners and losers, into a positive –sum game where all the concerned parties will be winners. Hopefully, in the context of future peace, there will be real cooperation among the countries of the region toward achieving the provision of safe and abundant water for future generations. 2.0 Water Management System Review Jordan is facing a future of very limited water resources - among the lowest in the world on a per capita basis. Available water resources per capita are falling as a result of population growth. They are projected to decline from more than 160 m3/capita/year (all uses) at present to only 91 m3/capita/year by 2025, putting Jordan in the category of having an absolute water shortage. Current water use already exceeds the renewable water supply. The annual water deficit has been satisfied by the unsustainable practice of overdrawing highland aquifers resulting in lowered water tables and declining water quality. Additional water supplies that are becoming available as a result of the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty (October 1994) will alleviate part of the problem. However, full development of these waters will require time and substantial financial investment. Moreover, the quantity of water eventually realized from the Peace Treaty (minimum of 215 million cubic meters/year (MCM/year) of various qualities) is less than the current overdraft of aquifers that must be phased out to prevent their total loss. Accordingly, prompt action is needed to safeguard our existing water resources by better management the existing resources. 2.1 Jordan’s Water Resources Jordan’s water resources consist primarily of surface and ground water. Renewable water resources are estimated at about 780 million cubic meters (MCM) per annum, including ground water (275 MCM/year distributed among 11 basins) and usable surface water (505 MCM/year distributed among 15 catchments basins). An additional 143 MCM/year of ground water is estimated to be available from fossil aquifers. Brackish aquifers are not yet fully explored, but at least 50 MCM/year is expected to be available for urban uses after desalination (JICA, 1995). Treated wastewater is being used on an increasing scale for irrigation, primarily in the Jordan River Valley, and can provide at least an additional 80 MCM/year until the year 2010 (El-Naser and Elias, 1993). Table below shows the Water Sources and Water Uses in 2000. |
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2.2 Water Management System Jordan’s water budget in 2000 was approximately 817 MCM or about 16% less than the peak year of 1993. In 2000, approximately 534 MCM of water was used for agriculture, 239 MCM was used for municipal purposes, 37 MCM was used for industrial purposes and 7.4 MCM for livestock purposes, or about 65%, 29%, 5% and 1% of the budget, respectively (Table 1). From 1995 through 1997 the water budget has remained relatively constant at approximately 880 MCM with the relative percentages of water use by the three primary water sectors as stated previously, and then it was decreased to reach 817 MCM by 2000. Again, this reflects more a limitation of the water supply than the actual demand. In general, water use by the domestic sector has increased from 20% to 27% of the annual water budget in the 1990s. During the same period, water use by the agricultural sector has decreased from 75% to 68%. In 2000, approximately 93% (34.2 MCM) of the water used by industry was derived from ground water sources. As industrial water demand increases in the near future, more reliable sources of water must be secured to support this sector of the economy. In addition, more efficient use of water, including wastewater recycling, must be promoted both to conserve water resources as well as to limit potential impacts to the environment |
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2.2.1 Projected Water Supply and Water Demand Water Supply Jordan’s renewable water resources that are economically developable are considered to be limited to approximately 505 MCM of surface waters and 275 MCM of ground waters. In 2000, abstraction of ground water resources exceeded the safe yield by 137 MCM/year. Development of non-renewable ground water resources (approximately 100 MCM/year) from the Ram aquifer system is planned (El-Naser, 1995). An additional 43 MCM/year of non-renewable groundwater resources partially are being obtained from other aquifer systems (e.g., Azraq and Jafr Basins). Other water sources include: · Reclaimed Wastewater (approximately 75 MCM/year at present and increasing to more than 245 MCM/year by 2020). · Brackish Ground Water. A JICA funded study of brackish ground water resources between the Dead Sea and Deir Alla in the Jordan Valley indicated that about 50 MCM/year may be economically developable using desalination technologies, but only for domestic and industrial purposes (JICA, 1995). · Seawater Desalination technologies are being considered for future augmentation of Jordan’s water resources. These technologies initially will be considered in the Aqaba area where Jordan has an outlet to the Red Sea. · UFW Reduction is another potentially inexpensive resource that can be tapped. Efforts to reduce UFW have already begun in Amman through the rehabilitation of the existing networks In 1995, the total renewable water resources available to Jordan were estimated at 657 MCM. This quantity gradually will increase as new development programs are implemented. By 2020, Jordan will have developed an estimated 1,165 MCM of renewable water resources (Figure 5). In addition, Jordan will be utilizing about 140 MCM of non-renewable ground water resources for a total water supply of approximately 1,305 MCM/year. During the period 2004 through 2020, over-abstraction of ground waters from renewable aquifers will be reduced to within the safe yield of the aquifers. In each year of these projections, available water resources will be less than the water demand as discussed below. Water Demand Despite a proposed investment program for the water sector through the year 2011 (US $2.5 billion) from 2002 through 2011), considerable water deficits will be facing Jordan each year. For example, the water deficit for all uses will grow from about 224 MCM in 1995 to 437 MCM by the year 2020, despite the huge investment envisaged under the investment program of the sector. Figure 6 presents a summary of the projected water demands by various sectors during this period. Figure 7 shows the projected demands versus available resources. These deficits will continue to be covered partially by mining ground water (i.e., abstraction in excess of the safe yield) at rates that exceed 20% of the safe yields because no other option is available. In addition, the deficit will require exploitation of non-renewable ground waters (e.g., Ram aquifer). In the short-term, where additional naturally occurring fresh water is not available, then domestic and industrial demands eventually must be met by desalination of brackish and saline ground waters, or seawater. The practical implications of a permanent water deficit, the only future scenario for Jordan considering the present per capita consumption of approximately 90 liters/day (domestic use only), are two folds. On one hand, present behavior patterns in most water dependent sectors must be adjusted toward water conservation and more efficient use of water. On the other hand, importation of food grains and energy must be increased in order to maintain an effective balance in water supply and demand. The current virtual water imported (impeded water), according to estimates by the author, is about 6.0 billion cubic meters per year. This is approximately seven times Jordan’s annual water budget and 10 times Jordan’s renewable water supply. An example of where important adjustments in water management practices will be needed is found in the present policy of allocating available water resources primarily to agriculture without corresponding incentives to effect improvements in water use efficiency or in agricultural productivity. The current trend of decreasing per capita availability of low-cost, naturally occurring renewable water supplies invites economic and social threats to Jordan’s development and must be addressed comprehensively. |
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2.2.2 Management of Water Resources Legislation and Institutions “All water resources within the boundaries of the Kingdom, whether they are surface or groundwater, river or internal seas, are considered to be state-owned property and shall not be used or transported except in compliance with law” (Water Authority Law No. 18 of 1988), and its amendments. Three generally independent, but organizationally related, public agencies are responsible for management of Jordan’s water sector. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) was established in 1992 by a by-law issued by the Executive Branch of the Government under the Constitution. The MWI’s main responsibilities include water resources policy and strategy development, water resources planning, research and development, information systems, and procuring financial resources. The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) was established by Law 18 of 1988 and is responsible for water and sewerage services throughout Jordan and for water resources management. The Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) was established by Law 19 of 1988 and primarily is responsible for development of the Jordan Rift Valley including water resources, primarily for agriculture in the Jordan River Valley. JVA also manages all dams/reservoirs in Jordan. Several other Jordanian agencies also have programs relating to water resources and water quality. The Ministry of Health monitors the water quality of drinking water supplies including source areas (e.g., springs) and the distribution network. The Ministry of Agriculture establishes agricultural policies and provides services primarily to farmers in the upland (non-Jordan Rift Valley) areas of the country. The Ministry of Municipal, Rural Affairs, and the Environment is responsible for water quality monitoring of water resources and for protecting these resources from pollution. 2.2.3 Delivery of Water Services Water Supply and Sanitation Although established as an autonomous corporate entity with financial and administrative independence, WAJ has been captive both to impose civil service constraints and to politically define fee structures. Consistent with practices of the water sector in general, WAJ largely has focused on short-term planning to increase water supplies rather than on a long-term development program. In fact, WAJ has had to operate under crisis conditions due to regional instability and the fact Jordan has had to host waves of refugees, most recently, as a result of the Gulf War in 1991. As a consequence, WAJ has been plagued by numerous difficulties and has been operating at an annual deficit for more than 10 years. Water delivery services are intermittent particularly during the summer months and customer satisfaction is low. WAJ’s total deficit presently is in excess of $350 million. Basic problems for WAJ have included:
Substantial efforts have been made since 1995 to correct these basic problems and to restructure WAJ as a self-sustaining enterprise. Irrigation Like all developing countries, Jordan in the 1970’s and 1980’s relied on irrigated agriculture as a cornerstone to its economic development. Today, things are somewhat different due to the fact that Jordan is expanding its industrial and trading base and moving away from reliance on irrigated agriculture. The scarcity of water has demanded that irrigated agriculture be reconsidered on the national level. Similarly to WAJ, the JVA was established as an autonomous corporate entity, but in fact also has been constrained by civil service requirements and a low fee structure. In addition, as in the case of WAJ, realized revenues historically have not begun to meet the costs of the services provided. Basic problems for JVA have included:
· High percentage of unaccounted-for-water (exceeds 35%) · Historically low fee or tariff structure · Inadequate operations & maintenance programs · Over staffing
2.2.4 Economic and Financial Issues Historically, a principal deficiency in Jordan’s water resources management system has been the lack of integrated planning. As a consequence, no overall long-term strategy for development of the water sector has been formulated and most projects have not supported an integrated management scheme. Both WAJ and JVA have proposed and planned projects to meet their individual needs. Also, water is relatively expensive in Jordan because of its limited availability and the costs required to abstract water from deep wells or pump (hydraulic lift) it more than 1,200 meters from the Jordan River Valley to the population centers that sprang up away from the traditional conflict areas. As noted above, revenues for water services provided by both WAJ and JVA historically have not been adequate even to begin to meet the costs of the services. Current fee structures for water provided by WAJ and JVA are summarized below in Tables 6 and 7 |
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Table 6. Municipal Water Tariff Structures (1997)
Data Source: MWI. Water use in cubic meters per three-month period; tariff in JD per cubic meter.
Table 7. Jordan Valley Irrigation Tariff Structure (1996)
Data Source: World Bank (1997). |
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The actual costs of delivering water to consumers are estimated at 0.780 JD/m3 ($1.14) for municipal purposes and 0.221 JD/m3 ($0.32) for irrigation in the Jordan Valley (World Bank, 1997). Cost analyses suggest that the Government of Jordan has been subsidizing these water services in amounts currently exceeding JD 50 million annually ($70 million) (World Bank, 1997) because of the low tariff structures. Alternatively, these expenditures may have been invested in new initiatives for the water sector based on strategic long-term planning had the tariff structures allowed for more complete recovery of the costs for the services provided. The MWI has proposed an intensive capital investment program to meet future water resources demands. However, it is important to note that in terms of costs and economic issues facing Jordan, development of even limited quantities of new water resources is very expensive. Estimates indicate that it will cost Jordan approximately JD 3.5 billion (US $5 billion) over a 13 year period to realize an increase in the annual water supply of only 400 MCM (Figure 8) (MWI, 1997). The increase in water supply will come mainly from Wehdeh Dam, Adasiya diversion dam, dams in the south (Wala, Mujib, Tannour), Disi Project, rehabilitation of municipal networks, treated wastewater, desalination, and other surface and ground water projects. 3.0 Water Strategy Reform Process Jordan’s water crisis has been developing over several decades. At the present time in the overall social and economic development of the country, the major factors affecting the water crisis include:
· Limited renewable water resources and limited natural resources (e.g., energy) · High population growth rate and influxes of refugees/displaced persons · Horizontal expansion of cities · Low efficiency of water delivery services · Low tariffs particularly regarding irrigation. · Low cost recovery for water services provided · High capital investments required to develop non-conventional water resources · Ability to control pollution and ground water uses · Lack of integrated water resources management · Loss of skilled staff due to civil service employment regulations. These factors have resulted in several problems that also must be considered in the formulation of water management system reforms, including: · Increasing gap between water demand and water supply · Competing sect oral and economic interests for limited water · Ground water over-abstraction and depletion of non-renewable aquifers · Social and environmental impacts · Low cost recovery for water services provided and weak financial position Securing a reliable supply of water, adequate in quantity and quality, is one of the most challenging issues facing Jordan today. Given the lessons of the past and the prospects for the future, the full potential of Jordan’s surface and ground water resources must be developed based on economic feasibility and consideration of relevant social and environmental impacts. Planning and policy formulation for the supply and utilization of water resources must be based on comprehensive and reliable data, including data on water quantity, quality, and utilization. The supplies of surface water, groundwater, and treated wastewater, and their utilization must be carefully monitored. The importance of shared surface water supplies and ground water aquifers demands careful and consistent assessment and monitoring of these resources. Investigations of deep aquifer resources may be conducted to support long-term management planning particularly as development costs for new resources escalate. The integrated use (including conjunctive use) of ground and surface waters of different qualities must be considered. Periodic re-assessments of available and potential water resources must become part of the long-term development process. Other non-conventional water resources, particularly brackish ground water resources, should be periodically assessed, as desalination becomes more economically feasible. 3.1 Water Policy Formulation Development of water policy and improvement of Jordan’s water resources management systems has been in progress for several years. The establishment of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) in 1992 partly was in response to Jordan’s recognition that a more integrated approach to national water management was required. Since 1993, the MWI has been supported by several donor organization projects that have assisted in the development of water policy and water master planning as well as in restructuring of the water sector. A brief summary of these efforts in overall water policy formulation is presented below. Beginning in 1993, structural and institutional issues facing the water sector were studied under a Structural Adjustment and Policy Support Project (SAPS) with the assistance of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA, 1996). The MWI has used this study as a basis for developing and then adopting proposals to provide the water sector with a more appropriate institutional framework for responding to and managing Jordan’s water situation. In 1994, two projects focusing on water policy development, water resources planning and management, and institutional development were initiated by MWI with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Subsequently, several other projects have been initiated by MWI with assistance from donor organizations to address water utility services and management, water resources development, water distribution and wastewater collection and treatment systems, and related. Moreover, other pro |